Precision Teaching: Theories, Implementation and Research

Precision Teaching: Theories, Implementation and Research Tiffany Elmore Introduction to Precision Teaching Precision Teaching (PT) has been applied in many settings and has been greatly successful in increasing learning performance in learners with a wide-range of abilities (White, 1986). It is an approach that measures whether an instructional method is successful in achieving learning goals. It focuses on directly observable behavior, monitors the frequency of the behavior performed in time and analyzes the behavior on a uniform visual display called a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC). Precision Teaching does not determine what curricula should be taught but offers a systematic approach as to the instructional tactics to apply (White, 1986). It bases the curriculum on the child’s performance, in other words, the learner knows best (Lindsley, 1971). The learner’s progress demonstrates whether the program is appropriate for the learner or if changes need to be made to the program. In order to gauge a learner’s progress, the target behavior must directly observable. For example, reading a book aloud can be directly observed to determine the reader’s skill level of the words and comprehension. However, there has been some recent support for using Precision Teaching on inner behaviors. Although, it has been shown to be effective in reducing feelings of depression (Kubina et al., 2006), it is widely used on observable behavior. In Precision Teaching, a learner’s performance is based on behavior frequency which is the average number of responses during each minute of the assessment period (White, 1986). Behavioral fluency is that combination of accuracy plus speed of responding that enables learners to function efficiently and effectively in their natural environments (Binder, 1996). Accuracy alone is not the best gauge of learning progression as it may show skewed improvement in performance. Essentially, by only assessing the accuracy of a learner’s response, an improvement in the learner’s performance is not truly reflected because the responses may be correct but the lack of speed in providing those responses also demonstrates a lack of mastery. Frequency is measured by counts per minute. The speed of a learner’s performance of responding and the accuracy of the responses indicates the learner has either mastered the material, in other words, achieved fluency, or the progress has stalled and the instructional program must be altered. Fluency applies three learning outcomes associated with fluent behavior: Retention, endurance and application (Binder, 1993, 1996 as cited by Kubina, Morrison Lee, 2002). Retention is the ability to perform the behavior after the intervention is terminated. Without retention, the learner loses the ability to perform the behavior. Endurance is the ability to perform a behavior at a specified level over a duration of time (Binder, unpublished doctoral dissertation; Binder, 1996, Binder, Haughton Van Eyk, 1990 as cited by Kubina, Morrison Lee, 2002). For learners who lack endurance may find it difficult to perform behaviors within a 30-second or 1-minute intervals and may ultimately stop performing the desired behaviors. Application is applying some element of a behavior to the entire behavior. For example, if the learner has difficulty in basic writing techniques then the application of increasing fluency in writing spelling words quickly cannot be achieved. The progress of a learner is recorded on a visual display called a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC). The chart is called a standard celeration chart since it always depicts rate of change or progress in a standard manner, regardless of the initial frequency of the behavior (White, 1986). The SCC utilizes a ratio scale which means that all changes in performance will be measured in equal ratios regardless of where they are marked on the chart. The change in frequency from 1 to 2 is the same ratio as 50 to 100 on the SCC. The charts shows whether there is an acceleration, deceleration or no change in behavior. When a behavior frequency doubles, or moves from 1 to 2, it is considered a â€Å"times 2† acceleration. Likewise, when a behavior is halved, or moves from 2 to 1, it is considered a â€Å"divided by 2† deceleration (Lindsley, 1990a). Implementation of Precision Teaching Five steps are involved in the implementation of Precision Teaching: (1) select a task, (2) set an aim (3) count and teach, (4) develop a learning picture and (5) decide what to do (McGreevy, 1983). The first step of implementation is selecting a task for the learner to learn. A task has five parts: (1) a movement that can be counted often each day, (2) a counting period, (3) a correct/incorrect pair, (4) a learning channel set, and (5) a movement that is â€Å"hard to do† (p. II-1). A movement is an observable, physical movement, something that the learner is doing. To make sure the movement occurs often, the learner should have 8-10 learning opportunities per day (p. II-5). If the movement is too hard, then the movement can be changed to a slice back, a step back or a tool movement and, conversely if a movement is too easy it can changed to a leap up movement (p. II-11). A slice back is a smaller movement of the original movement. A step back is an easier movement than the o riginal movement. A tool movement is the prerequisite body movement required to perform the original movement. A leap up movement is a movement that is harder to perform than the original movement. A counting period is amount of time spent each day counting the movement (p. II-12). The period should be long enough so the movement can occur at least 8-10 times. The counting period should not be so long that it proves difficult to count the movement. However, adjustments can be made if the counting period is too long or too short to count the movement. Similarly, Kubina and Yurich (2012) incorporated these two parts into their analysis PT. They suggested that the first step of PT is pinpointing. Pinpointing applies focusing observable behavior and measuring behavior based on frequency. Consider the Dean Man rule that states if a dead man can do it then it is not behavior. The idea is that any directly observable behavior should involve some physical movement. For example, instead of observing a child sitting still in a chair, the teacher can observe the number of times the child gets out the chair. A correct/incorrect pair involves counting the correct movements and incorrect movements (McGreevy, 1983, p. II-15). Instead of focusing on eliminating a movement without adding a replacement movement. For example, rather than decreasing screaming, it best for the learner to increase talking in softer voice. A learning channel set outlines the input channel (received) and output channel (sent). The input can vary from hearing, touching, seeing, smelling, etc and output can include saying, writing, doing, pointing, etc. The learning channel sets â€Å"tells [others] how we are teaching a task† and â€Å"reminds us that are many ways for a [learner] to learn the same movement (McGreevy, 1983, p. II-18). Lastly, the movement must be hard to for the learner to perform (p. II-20). The objective is to learn a new task rather than working on previously learned tasks. By selecting tasks that are hard to do, the learner, provided with ample learning opportunities, will hopefully achieve more corrects and fewer corrects over time and ultimately reach or come close to the aim. The next step in implementing precision teaching is to set an aim (p. III-2). The aim is final chosen objective of the performance likely achieved by a high frequency of correct responses and low to zero frequency of incorrect responses. It is critical that learners learn to perform correct movements in a prompt, smooth and decisive manner. If the learner is having difficulty reaching aim, it may be necessary to change the way the movement is taught, change the learning channel or change the movement as indicated above as a step back, slick back or tool movement. The third step in implementing precision teaching is to count and teach (p. IV-1). This steps requires counting the correct and incorrect responses and teaching the task to the student (p. IV-1). A movement is learned when the learner knows what the correct and incorrect responses are. Each task will be counted and taught daily until the learner reaches aim or the learning picture reflects a need for change. The fourth step in implementing precision teaching is to develop a learning picture. Utilizing the Standard Celeration Chart, the charts displays the correct and incorrect responses provided daily by the learner (p. V-1). The trends of the chart develop the learning picture. The learning picture shows how quickly the responses are increasing or decreasing and predicts whether the learner will achieve aim. The final step in implementing precision teaching is to decide what to do (p. VI-1). Once a learning picture has been revealed, a decision can be made as to whether to continue the current program or make a change. If the learner is not learning or not learning quickly enough, it may be necessary to make changes to the movement (i.e. a slice back), the counting period (i.e. increase 10 seconds to 20 seconds), the learning channel set (i.e. see-write to see-say), the aim (i.e can be lowered), or how the task is taught (i.e. lessons, untimed practice). Precision Teaching in Research Precision Teaching has been applied in a variety of settings and environments. It has proven useful in improving fluency in learners of all ages and all learning abilities. Precision Teaching has been implemented in professional environments as well as classroom settings. In 2002, Binder analyzed the fluency performance in a customer call center. After attending a FluencyBuilding workshops, the manager and supervisors of customer service call center decided to modify their traditional new hire training program. They focused on increasing fluency of the core fundamentals required to perform the job well. Within the fluency-based training, trainees were given lecture and tested on lecture material with a 2-minute quiz (see-mark), a 3-minute hear or see-say providing verbal responses to questions in addition to other fluency-based activities. Daily fluency goals for each exercise were set and each trainees’ performance was monitored against those goals. Trainees recorded their ow n performance and reported their performance to the training coaches. As a result of the fluency-based training, correct performances tripled each week and all participants performed within the fluent range. The participants mastered the core material much faster than in previous training programs and thus reduced the required training during from three weeks to two weeks. New hire trainees were much more fluent in the fundamental skills and knowledge than their veteran counterparts. The dramatic improvements within this program demonstrate that fluency-based programs to be successful in education, training and coaching programs involving all ages of participants within various skill sets. Precision Teaching applied within a classroom setting has proven to increase reading ability, maths skills, and improving academic interventions overall. Chiesa and Robertson (2000) utilized Precision Teaching and fluency-based training to enhance maths skills in five primary school children. The students were selected because their maths skills were not improving at the same pace as their peers. They were in jeopardy of being referred to a remedial program. The training program focused on one observable behavior, the division of two-digit numbers by one-digit. Pre-tests were taken on both multiplication and division skills to determine each student’s skill level. The students were taught how to use digital timers, plot scores and understand learning pictures on the SCC. The students were responsible for completing their maths practice sheets without teacher instruction or assistance. The five students sat together as a group during the maths period and had a personal folder t hat contained the practice sheets, answer key and charts. They completed their practice sheets within a one-minute time probe, each completed sheet was marked by a peer and the correct and error scores were recorded on the SCC. Each week one of the researchers met with the students during maths period while the teacher was working with the rest of the class. The researcher reviewed each student’s progress and determined what changes would be taken. Students that met the aim, moved on to the next level, those who did not meet the aim were provided with skills that were further reduced, or sliced back until they were able to improve to a satisfactory level. At the conclusion of the 12-week training program, the PT group had significantly improved their fluency in the maths skills task. Their responses ranged from 10 to 15 correct in one-minute which was an increase of 10 to 15 responses per minute before the program was implemented. The PT group surpassed all but one of the students in the entire class on the maths skills task. The results show that children performing at a low academic level can improve their learning significantly through Precision Teaching and fluency training. The training program did not require any more time than the allotted maths period and did not provide more instructional assistance or interaction from the teacher. This shows that PT can be beneficial and effective in the mainstream classroom and offers an alternative to expensive and time-consuming academic programs. Precision Teaching has proven to be effective in improving skills in participants with intellectual disabilities as well (Kubina, Morrison Lee, 2002). Schirmer et al. (2007) examined the effectiveness of precision teaching on teaching storytelling to child with autism. The child began working on a hear information-say story program for 10 minutes per day in order to increase the frequency of syllables used. The teacher would describe a scenario to the child and the child would create a story based on the information provided to him. After goals of increased syllable use were met, the teacher moved on a timed practice where the number of correct syllables produced in one minute was recorded. The number of corrects syllables produced increased from 21 per minute to 90 per minute in 5 days. In the last phase, the teacher changed the child’s learning channel from hear-say to see-say. The child was given a photograph and would create a story based on the photograph. Although there was an initial drop in the frequency of correct responses, the child reached the set aim very quickly. Precision Teaching and Practical Application As previous studies have shown, Precision Teaching can be applied in various learning environments with learners of diverse learning abilities. It is an instructional approach that can be applied to any established program or curricula. The main directive guiding success of the learner’s performance IS the learner. Fluency is key to the learner’s progress and any deficits in learning can be easy ascertained with the Standard Celeration Chart. This visual display allows the teacher to easily determine the learner’s progress and either continue with the program on course or make adjustments to program that are most beneficial to the learner. The SCC also helps teacher to predict future progress as to whether the learner will achieve aim or the number of incorrect responses will reach 0. Studies have shown that Precision Teaching can be used in conjunction with other instructional programs and can be effectively applied in both professional and classroom settings wi thout requiring additional time to perform the program in the workplace or classroom. Precision Teaching daily timings are recorded on the SCC but no other data is required. Also, it does not require management or teachers to provide additional instruction outside of the program or curricula already in place. Its versatility in practical application makes Precision Teaching a favorable approach to utilize. References Chiesa, M., Robertson, A. (2000). Precision teaching and fluency training: Making maths easier for students and teachers. Educational Psychology in Practice, 16(3), 297–310. Kubina, R. M., Morrison, R., and Lee, D. L. (2002). Benefits of Adding Precision Teaching to Behavioral Interventions for Students with Autism. Behavioral Interventions, 17, 233-246. Lindsley, O. R. (1971). From Skinner to precision teaching: The child knows best. In J. B. Jordan L. S. Robbins (Eds.), Lets try doing something else kind of thing (pp. 1-11). Arlington, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. Lindsley, O. R. (1990) Precision teaching: By teachers for children.Teaching Exceptional Children, 22, 10-15. McGreevy, P. (1983).Teaching and learning in plain English(2nd. ed.). Kansas City, MO: Plain English Publications. Schirmer, K., Almon-Morris, H., Fabrizio, M. A., Abrahamson, B. and Chevalier, K. (2007). Using Precision Teaching to Teach Story Telling to a Young Child with Autism. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 23, 23-26. White, O. R. (1986). Precision TeachingPrecision learning.Exceptional Children, 25, 522-534.

Punishment for Crime should be Individualized Essay

Crime and the punishments for crimes have been the subject of debates for centuries.   When asked, most people would say that people who commit crimes should be punished for it in some way. When deciding however what kind of punishment should be given to the offender, is when the debate begins.   The reason for the debate comes about because there are significant differences in how people view punishment and what punishments should be used for different crimes. Most people struggle with the question of what kind of punishment is fair for the offender.   In the past, people have at times been treated differently for very similar crimes, this created upset among the people who cried out for equal treatment for everyone.   What those people fail to realize is that equal is not always fair.   Although some degree of structure in sentencing is needed, there should be some leeway provided in order to individualize the sentence to â€Å"make the punishment fit the specific crime†.   In order to determine what is considered fair and equal punishment, the first step is to identify what punishment is. One definition of punishment is the deliberate infliction of physical harm on an offender or his property without his consent because he is an offender, but for reasons other than self-defense (Halliday, Appendix B.).   In the legal system, punishment is inflicted upon an offender as a direct result of negative behaviors for the purpose of deterring future behaviors these are called sentences.   Different members of society however have different ideas of what kind of punishment is fair.   What some people feel is fair and just as a particular punishment for crime, others feel is cruel and inhumane.   During some eras in history, sentences for crimes were not fairly and equally handed out to all citizens.   People with higher community status were sometimes given lighter or no sentences for crimes that other people were harshly punished for.   Due to the differences in sentencing and an increasing crime rate, changes in the law and punishments were needed (Lehrer).In an attempt to make sentencing fair for everyone, President Ronald Reagan passed a Comprehensive Crime Control Bill on October 12, 1984 (Kaufman, 1). Through this, â€Å"the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984† created â€Å"The United States Sentencing Commission† which developed a set of sentencing guidelines for specific crimes.   These guidelines created mandatory sentencing for anyone who committed certain crimes, which took away all ability for the judge or jury to individualize sentences for individuals or for individual crimes (Kaufman, 1).   Although these guidelines were developed with good intentions to provide the average and underprivileged with the same rights as the wealthy, there are other factors in crimes that were not taken into consideration. It is a well known fact that not all crimes are created equal.   Murder is obviously a more serious offense than theft and should not have the same consequences and few people would argue that the consequences should be the same.   The problem of fairness becomes more of an issue when the end result of the crimes are similar.   The motive or cause of the crime however might have been completely different.   While it is easy to say that a punishment should be less severe for stealing jewels than for someone who takes a human life.   The consequences however are the same for a person who shoplifts a CD to avoid paying for it and a person who steals a can of soup to feed a starving family.   Because the end result is the same the law requires that the offenders be punished equally, but the motive in the case is quite different.   The same is true when comparing a person who commits murder over a bad drug deal compared to a woman who kills her husband after years of sufferi ng abuse.   Because the sentencing guidelines are based on the end result of the crime, motivation is not considered.   Judges are required to pass sentence based on the mandatory sentence.   Ã‚  Even over half of the Federal Judges would chose to eliminate the mandatory sentencing guidelines and 82.8 percent believe that judges would be better and more efficient at choosing the sentence for crimes (Pratt, 1). If the guidelines were eliminated or at least changed, the judges, juries or parole boards would have more freedom to take into consideration special circumstances behind the criminal behavior.   This would reintroduce the possibility for some mistakes or personal preferences, but it also allows for some leniency for crimes with less criminal motivation. The problem with mandatory guidelines has gone so far as to invade the public school system.   In schools, it is called the zero-tolerance policy.   This policy was introduced into most public schools after the shooting at the Columbine, Colorado high school and the increased number of school shootings that followed.   This policy states that any child, who brings a weapon to school, threatens to or harms other students, or indicates hostile ideation will be punished.   The punishment ranges from suspension to actual criminal charges. The premise behind the policy is to take all threats seriously.   The problem with it is that children are no longer allowed to be children.   When children get angry they often threaten them, but due to the policy children are getting suspended from school and arrested for drawing pictures of guns and for using dinnerware to peel oranges for lunch (Dart, 1).   These rules, like the mandatory sentence guidelines for adults takes all of the common sense and reason out of assigning consequences for various behaviors. In January of 2005 a Supreme Court decision provided some hope for the future of fair sentencing.   The court ruling declared mandatory guidelines unconstitutional (Edelstein, 1).   This provides the judges a little more freedom to use desertion.   The mandatory sentences are still the default sentence, but based on the circumstances surrounding the case, the judge has the right to rule outside of the guidelines if appropriate (Edelstein,1).   In these cases the judge can provide lighter sentences to people whose special situations led them to commit a crime they otherwise would not have considered. Mandatory sentences often also include parole guidelines which mandate at what point in the sentence a criminal might be eligible for parole or if parole is even an opportunity.   In cases where an inmate can not ever be eligible for parole, there is very little motivation for the person to use positive behavior while incarcerated.   The person in these cases have no hope of getting a reduced sentence because of merits accomplished while in prison.   By providing the judges to choose the sentence, parole can be made more of an option to motivate criminals to choose rehabilitation instead of continuing to have problems during the time in prison.   This would help lead to more people successfully being rehabilitated.   By providing more inmates the opportunity for reduced sentences and rehabilitation, there would be significantly less of a problem with prison overcrowding. Although the guidelines for sentencing were created to make the legal system and criminal punishments fairer for everyone, they have gone to the extreme and are now causing harm to some people.   A legal system that provided special treatment for the rich and famous was wrong, but a legal system that requires horribly abused women to undergo the same sentence as a child killer is just as wrong.   There should be some basic guidelines, but at the same time there should be provisions in which the motive of the crime and the background behind the crime should be taken into consideration.   There is no such thing as a â€Å"cookie cutter† crime and there should not be uniform punishments to for the crimes. Every person is individual and when an individual commits a crime, a little time needs to be taken to determine the best and most effective punishment for that crime.   Some people would benefit more from community service or therapy than being put in jail.   Prison in many cases proves only to harden people and makes a person less likely to be able to adequately adapt to society upon returning to it.   Parents who have more than one child do not discipline all of the children in the same way for similar behaviors, because different consequences are more effective for different people.   Based on this fact, the sentencing guidelines need to be re-examined and adapted to be sure that the best possible consequence is given for each individual and each offense.   Works Cited Edelstein, Jonathan. â€Å"Sentence Structure† 31 August 2005 26 February, 2008. Dart, Andrew. â€Å"Zero Tolerance vs. Common Sense† 19 December 2008. 25, February 2008 Lehrer, Eli. â€Å"Soft Cell†. 9 June, 2003. 25, February 2008 < AEI – Short Publications> Pratt, Robert. â€Å"Senseless Sentencing: a Federal Judge Speaks Out†. 10 January 1999.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Des Moines Register.   25, February 2008 Halliday,Roy. â€Å"What Good is Punishment?† 1 January 2003. Appendix B. What good is punishment> Kaufman, Shari. â€Å"The Federal Sentencing Guidelines: A Formulaic and Impersonal Approach to Dispensing Justice†. (1999) the Federal Sentencing Guidelines: A Formulaic and Impersonal Approach to Dispensing Justice

Spanning Two DecadesThe 50s to the 60s Essay - 1745 Words

Spanning Two Decade’s: The 50’s to the 60’s Similar? Or Distinctly different? â€Å"The postwar years are remembered as a time of affluence, consumerism, conformity, and stability, a time when American enjoyed an optimistic faith in progress and technology.†(Heretta, pg.779) These words best describe the decade that Americas experienced in the 1950’s. It was age of dad’s always-right attitude and a culture that was family centered. The standard of living for American’s was the best in the world. The times just looked to perfect lives were lived to privately. This private enjoyment was centered on the family, leisure, and consumerism. Soon everyone tried to become to â€Å"Leave it to Beaver† type of family and culture exploded. The explosion is†¦show more content†¦In turn the divorce rate was at a constant low. The Reverend Billy Graham used television and other media outlets to increase the popularity of the Evangelical religious experience. The Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Seventh Day Adventisits grew in mod erate numbers during this time also. â€Å"Although critics suggested that middle-class interest in religion stemmed more from conformity then spirituality, the revival nonetheless spoke to Americans’ search for spiritual meaning in uncertain times†(Henretta, pg.792) The Average life span rose with better federal and local medical assistance. Parents were becoming more aware of health problems and where to go to get help. They were also socially forced to keep certain gender roles that were consistent with the media. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;With religion playing an important role in the average Americans lives, consumerism began to grow in the white and blue-collar workers. Their families started to spend extra cash instead of saving it. Washing machines, dryers, and new cars became commonly bought items. The Homeowner who needed some extra cash, but couldn’t work enough hours to purchase that item when he needed it, started to use personal credit. This began the craze of credit cards. †The Diner Club† introduced the first credit card in 1950: By the 1970s the ubiquitous plastic credit card had revolutionized personal and family finance†(Henretta, pg.790). The awareness of addition free time was awareShow MoreRelatedSpanning Two Decades: the 50s to the 60s1803 Words   |  8 PagesSpanning Two Decades: The 50s to the 60s Similar? Or Distinctly different? The postwar years are remembered as a time of affluence, consumerism, conformity, and stability, a time when American enjoyed an optimistic faith in progress and technology.(Heretta, pg.779) These words best describe the decade that Americas experienced in the 1950s. It was age of dads always-right attitude and a culture that was family centered. The standard of living for Americans was the best in the world. 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Ansoff Matrix on Apple - 1170 Words

soff MatMarket Penetration: -The signature product that made Apple, Apple, was the Macintosh. It first had a famous Television Advertisement in the US in 1984 introducing its signature product the Macintosh. This was led by Anya Major who was chased by agents of Thought Police, threw a sledgehammer into the screen of big brother David Graham. At the end, it says, â€Å"Apple Computer will introduce Macintosh. And you’ll see why 1984 won’t be like 1984.† This screen of big brother David Graham supposedly represented IBM, but the production crew says that it is not exactly the case. This could be a really good ad because its a very catchy commercial, and these people were famous at this time. This would attract people to buy this product because†¦show more content†¦Apple still prevails to be really creative in terms of diversifying by adding new products into the market. Expect them to release again a new one soon, which will be a hit because theyve already established their name. Apple still continues to have ways in growing their company. Once upon a time this was small time, but now it is the most valuable company in the world. Sometimes people even use the word Apple or Mac for a computer. This just comes to show that Apple has really gone to another level, shaping peoples minds of what an ideal computer should be. Their ways of operations, advertising, and growing have been really effective throughout the years. I would suggest that they put up more Apple stores, because Apple products are very much in demand in the Philippines. Its expensive to build an Apple store, but they will break-even with time. especially the colonial mentality of the Filipinos which they buy all foreign products, I believe that an Apple store in the Philippines will be a really successful venture. Sources: All accessed on 10/14/2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(advertisement) http://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/commentary/cultofmac/2002/05/52452 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9227447/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_(original)Show MoreRelatedAnsoff Matrix on Apple1154 Words   |  5 Pagessoff MatMarket Penetration: -The signature product that made Apple, Apple, was the Macintosh. It first had a famous Television Advertisement in the US in 1984 introducing its signature product the Macintosh. This was led by Anya Major who was chased by agents of Thought Police, threw a sledgehammer into the screen of big brother David Graham. At the end, it says, â€Å"Apple Computer will introduce Macintosh. 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